Chapter 21, of A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess Essay

Part 21, of A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess - Essay Example He doesn't prefer to impart his cash to them and even says, â€Å"I don’t know, I don’t know. What it is I don’t like simply discarding my well deserved pretty polly, that’s what it is.† (Thrawn). His desire for the substantial old style music has changed for milder tunes. He goes to the acknowledgment that adolescent had quite recently been a passing stage, something misleadingly captivating like an energized toy, †¦like one of these malenky toys you viddy being sold in the boulevards, similar to little chellovecks made out of tin and with a spring inside and afterward a twisting handle outwardly and you wrap it up grr and off ititties, such as strolling, O my siblings. In any case, it itties in an orderly fashion and strikes straight into things blast and it can't help what it is doing. Being youthful resembles resembling one of these malenky machines. (Thrawn) What's more, as he attempts to impart his simply out-of-high school intelligence to his fanciful child in a discussion that he shapes in his brain, he even understands that his child won't get it and carry on precisely the manner in which he did, given the conditions, in his growing up years. His son’s child won't comprehend it either, whenever clarified by the child, and that is the basic idea of youth that Alex appreciates in retrospection. The way that Stanley Kubric chose not to utilize Chapter 21 in his film rendition of the novel has raked a great deal of discussions in regards to the exclusion of this section in the American distribution. Nonetheless, it very well may be contended that a film, being an alternate vehicle of craftsmanship that is reliant on its creator’s vision, might not have prevailing with regards to communicating and passing on this incredible section the manner in which the novel did. In any case, for a thoughtful peruser, the account style that has some stun an incentive with the sheer utilization of nadsat, and the whimsical method of narrating on account of the particular mental condition of the storyteller hero and the odd cutting edge occasions

United States Economy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

US Economy - Research Paper Example Presentation: History of the economy of United States We will get on an excursion to take a gander at the economy of United States. This curiosity will lead us to examine the economy’s tasks, structures, and execution at a given time and its progressions after some time. We are going to take a gander at the businesses that have gotten moreover significant in the United State economy and how the administration is assuming control over the portion of the nation’s yield. The development of people’s pay, the conveyance of people’s pay among a lot more will be tended to. For quite a while, the way to United States economy had been southern agribusiness. Yet, the common war which started in April 1861 about annihilated everything. Nonetheless, the nation came out of the war with monetary devices to set up the most grounded economy on the planet. Inside 30 years, the United States drove the entire world in assembling. Following 80 years, it contained portion of t he world’s business. From 1871 to 1890, United States encountered the second modern unrest. These are social and financial changes that outcome from wide utilization of machines underway. Developments made work simpler and more secure and this made the entire business. Processing plants began working utilizing large scale manufacturing and this prompted development of the economy. Somewhere in the range of 1861 and 1941, the economy of United States had ascended from blast to bust. This was a period between the common war and II universal war. In the preeminent or resulting decade, the United States financial market development occurred in a situation where approaches set by controllers were significantly changing and conditions in the market were shaky (Garcia, 2011). This... For quite a while, the way to United States economy had been southern agribusiness. In any case, the common war which started in April 1861 almost decimated everything. Nonetheless, the nation came out of the war with financial devices to set up the most grounded economy on the planet. Inside 30 years, the United States drove the entire world in assembling. Following 80 years, it contained portion of the world’s business. From 1871 to 1890, United States encountered the second modern upset. These are social and monetary changes that outcome from wide utilization of machines underway. Innovations made work simpler and more secure and this made the entire business. Manufacturing plants began working utilizing large scale manufacturing and this prompted development of the economy. Somewhere in the range of 1861 and 1941, the economy of United States had ascended from blast to bust. This was a period between the common war and II universal war. In the principal or ensuing decade, the United States financial market development occurred in a domain where strategies set by controllers were drastically changing and conditions in the market were temperamental (Garcia, 2011). This came about to disillusioning and unstable gainfulness of budgetary division. Monetary division recorded 1.5 percent of Gross Domestic Product from 1960 to 1970s however after wards diminished to 1 percent in 1980s. In 1990s, the Gross Domestic Product started to rise and inside ten years, it was up to 3 percent.

Wolfram Alpha Tonight!

Wolfram Alpha Tonight! I dont know how familiar you are with Wolfram, but Ill assume you arent familiar with it at all and enlighten you. Wolfram makes a software called Mathematica that is pretty much my savior. Its the smartest software Ive ever seen. What does it do? It does math. Easy math. Hard math. Black-magic math. It graphs, it makes music, it maps, it decrypts, it slices, it dices, and itll take your dog for a walk. I wrote about it a while back on my personal blog so if youre interested in more details about Mathematica, be sure to check it out. Today though, Wolfram is debuting something else, something new. Theyve created a search engine called Wolfram Alpha. Its not like Google in that it doesnt search for websites, in fact its all a closed system, but what it does search for is information. Any information. It will tell you the GDP of any country youd like, graph it against any country youd like, or tell your the history of that countrys GDP. It can tell you about scales in music, it can teach you about genetics, it can give you material properties, and blah blah blah blah blah. But Google can do this too! No. Google can not do this. Wolfram Alpha is so much beyond Google in terms of comprehension. It interprets what you search for and gives you exactly what you want to a ridiculous degree of accuracy and depth. I cant get into too much detail describing this now because I need to study for my final on Monday, but heres the important stuff. 1) Watch this video NOW: Click to watch video 2) Salivate 3) Be online tonight at 8 PM Eastern to watch the live webcast of Wolfram Alpha going live. Be here tonight at 8 PM Eastern! Thats all for now!

The Two Party System Of The United States - 1931 Words

Ryley Burch-Burns Research Paper: The Two Party System In the United States In the United States, we have a majority rule type of system where only one person represents an entire district of people. This system is extremely pluralized, which means that people will favor either extreme on the view of an issue. Due to these reasons, only two parties can coexist, and it is difficult for a third party to gain favor in the masses, which is Duverger’s Law. In the history of the United States, there has usually been two political parties that represented the views of the masses. Each of these parties had a certain way that they believed about the major issues of the time that were brought up or could be influenced by the government. The reason that only two parties have ever been able to establish themselves in government is because of the majority ruled system that our government has, and the love people have for having a definite answer rather than an indefinite one. One of the reasons we only have two major parties is because of how our government is. When our government was formed in the days of the founding fathers, there were the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists, which was essentially the beginning of our two party system. As they formed and wrote the constitution, they made it so that there could only be a two party system. In the system they created, â€Å"two empirical regularities are prominent: that only two candidates compete (famously encapsulated by Duverger sShow MoreRelatedWhat Is The Shortcomings Of The Two Party System In The United States?1133 Words   |  5 PagesThe United States is currently facing an enemy older and stronger than any civilization in the world today. Adversity amongst the different cultural groups has caused an immense amount of chaos among the population of the Land of Liberty. Different extremist groups have caused civil unrest to spread throughout the country like wildfire, and there is going to be no end to it anytime soon, it seems. Groups like ISIS, AntiFa, the Alt-Right, BLM, among others are carelessly destroying this great countryRead MoreThe USA and The UK in terms of Two Party System Essay examples1559 Words   |  7 PagesThe USA and The UK in terms of Two Party System YaÄŸmur AKAR Political parties are indispensable part of the governments and the democracies. Parties provide capturing control of the governments and shaping of the democracies. Every state has different party system types. Even though these systems are the same, they can approve differently from each other in some countries. The purpose of this essay to compare the USA and the United Kingdom in terms of two party system and also discuss their differencesRead MoreTwo Party System802 Words   |  4 PagesWhy the United States has a Two-Party System Beginning in its infant stage, the United States has consistently maintained two dominant political parties that initially included the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists who debated the ratification of the Constitution. Although the Federalists and the Ant-Federalists eventually gave way to the Republicans and Democrats, they set a precedent for the continued dominance of the two-party system that remains in effect. There are several reasons supportingRead MoreVoting System Of A Democratic Government1141 Words   |  5 Pagesgovernment. The voting system that a country uses has a substantial impact on how the government of that country is run, and how well the concerns of the electorate are addressed. There are many important factors to weigh when selecting a voting system, but an efficient voting system needs to consistently address a few key issues. These include producing a government that represents the electorate’s political views as closely as possible, preventing gerrymandering, and preventing two party rule. What votingRead More third parties Essay1483 Words   |  6 Pagesunderdog and loser in major elections third parties make some significant contribution to the political spectrum in the United States. Third Party Agendas are taken serious by the Democratic and Republican Parties and specific pieces of the Third Party Agendas are sometimes adopted by the two major parties. Third parties give discontented voters other alternatives. The Republican and Democratic Parties have been known to operate in similar styles and third parties give the voter the opportunity to expressRead MoreThe Democratic Party And The Republican Party1238 Words   |  5 Pages Two political parties have dominated the United States: the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. The term â€Å"Third party† is used in the United States to describe any political party besides the well-known Republican and Democratic parties. Examples of third parties include the Libertarian Party, The Green Party, and the Constitutional Party. Unfortunately, these third parties have a hard time gaining political representation at the federal level. The historic route Democrats and RepublicansRead MoreEmergence of a Two-Party System 1789-18081405 Words   |  6 PagesEmergence of a Two-Party System 1789-1808 A two-party system is a political system in which the electorate gives its majority of votes to only two major parties and in which one or the other party can win a majority in the legislature. An example of a two-party system is the United States of America, which has the Republicans and the Democrats. For the candidacy to be president, the person must have a majority of the party supporting him or her. An advantage to having a two-party system is that itRead MoreThe United States Vs. United Kingdom1256 Words   |  6 PagesThe United States and the United Kingdom have both become industrialized democracies, however by saying that it may seem as though they have many similarities which is true, but there are many more differences in the political systems they use and the way the states are governed. Just because United States and the United Kingdom share these similarities and differences in their Presidential System, and the formation of their democracies, the United States is vi ewed by far as a much weaker state dueRead MorePlurality Voting And Voting System1444 Words   |  6 Pagesthey’re going to vote for someone they don’t really like, because he/she is the ‘lesser-of-two-evils’.† (Ossipoff) Many take the United States’ voting system with an â€Å"it is what it is† attitude, assuming it could be no better. This is certainly not the case. The United States uses what is known as plurality voting, meaning the candidate with the largest percentage of votes wins. This is also a â€Å"winner-takes-all† system, where losers of the election receive no representation. This leads voters to compromiseRead MoreThe Causes And Cons Of The United States Congress?711 Words   |  3 PagesThe United States Congress has been on a downward spiral in the past decade, in 2009 their approval rating was at 37% compared to a mere 13% as of this week. This begs the question of whether our electoral laws for Congress are t ruly working in our current political climate. The house of representatives currently divided at 240 Republicans to 194 Democrats and 1 independent. This clear divide has been seen in the inability to pass legislation and the clear lack of partisanship within the house.

Society Has Many Different Views On A Man’S Influence Over

Society has many different views on a man’s influence over a vulnerable woman. Individuals who lived in the 1800’s particularly, had a certain image that they sought to reflect, which is evident in the novel Dracula. Dracula by Bram Stoker showcases the superior role that men had over women in the Victorian era because they are illustrated as being dominant and controlling. The novel begins with Jonathan Harker’s journals that narrate his relationship with Mina. In the very first chapter of the novel, Jonathan makes a stereotypical comment about who readers can infer might be his significant other. Since Johnathan finds himself in a new country, he discovers foreign food that tastes delicious enough to want to obtain the recipe, but not†¦show more content†¦Trade unionists†¦hoped that restrictions on the hours women could work would disqualify them from key jobs† (Magraw 13). Even males during the same time that the novel takes place sexualized women and sought to keep them away from careers and instead have them at home. Jonathan Harker is not the only man that personifies the idea that males are above females. As the reader continues to uncover the truth about Dracula’s control over Lucy, it becomes evident that the acts are degrading towards women. The first piece of evidence is witnessed by Mina. While Mina watches over Lucy, as she declines in health, Miss. Murray notices the act of Dracula’s power when the two friends and the vampire see each other around town. The novel’s main female character voices, â€Å"I slewed around a little, so as to see Lucy well without seeming to stare at her, and saw that she was in a half-dreamy state, with an odd look on her face that I could not quite make out† (Stoker 102). This statement hints that Lucy is completely under Dracula’s trance. In the act of Miss. Westenra’s faraway status, Mina notices Dracula’s red eyes that have bewitched her friend. Mina is not the only one who observes Lucy’s lack of self-control. Seward becomes the next spectator that witnesses the effects of vampirism bestowed by Dracula. He says in his journal, â€Å"It was certainly odd that whenever she got into that lethargic state, with the stertorousShow MoreRelatedHybridization Theory of Globalization Essay1711 Words   |  7 PagesPieterse states that â€Å"since culture is a battleground, hybridity is a matter of mapping no man’s land.† (Pieterse, 117) While this argument is sound in many ways, I do believe that â€Å"battleground† conveys far more violence than is involved in most cultural mixing. However, Pieterse tempers his argument somewhat as he continues, saying that â€Å"hybridity does not preclude struggle but yields a multifocus view on struggle and by showing multiple identity on both sides, transcends the ‘us versus them’ dualismRead MoreWestern Imperialism Influence on African Culture1132 Words   |  5 PagesAlex Benson Dr. Yixin Chen HST 104-001 5 February 2013 Impact of Western Imperialism on the African Community Western imperialism, though it has its good qualities, essentially led to the breakdown and ending of the African community. Their religion, new language, and political knowledge and power make it impossible for both communities to exist together. The most apparent form of cultural imperialism from the West in Things Fall Apart are the differences in the law making systems of theRead More The Necessity of Autonomy (Free Will) in Society Essays787 Words   |  4 PagesThe Necessity of Autonomy (Free Will) in Society   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Human nature is not a machine to be built after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree, which requires to grow and develop itself on all sides, according to the tendency of the inward forces which make it a living thing.† John Stuart Mill explicitly describes the necessity of autonomy or free will in society to insure the happiness of all. From this perspective one can recognize that autonomy should not onlyRead MoreThe State Of Nature Is An Important And Relevant Philosophical Idea1238 Words   |  5 Pagesphilosophical idea that has been discussed and debated for a long time. The reason it is such a key topic in philosophy is it delves into the reasoning behind why man had to create political society. In order to properly understand the philosophy of the state of nature it is important to look at conflicting viewpoints about it in order to understand it with less bias. Thomas Hobbes and Jean Jacques Rosseau both have differing viewpoints regarding the state of nature. Hobbes feels that man’s natural stateRead MoreThe Role Of Gender During The Renaissance Period1466 Words   |  6 Pageslearning from Greek and Roman classical writing. Recent exploration by historians into the Renaissance period has seen a fixation on the discussion of the role of gender during the Renaissance. A variety of historians, such as Joan Kelly and Merry E. Weisner, believe that women didn’t experience any form of a Renaissance during this period. It can be widely acknowledged that during this period society did experience a ‘rebirth’, especially in terms of the role of the men in Europe. Women, on the other handRead MoreLiterature Is The Expression Of The Thoughts Of Society941 Words   |  4 Pagesthoughts of society. Books are specimens of the conversations of an age, persevered in the spirit of taste and of genius†. In other words, literature conveys an understanding of society and books are a gateway into the themes and culture of other time periods. Culture is the traditions, convictions, and state of mind of a specific group of people. The beliefs of one group of people to another often differentiate the groups; and over the course of time, has led to a plethora of different cultures withRead MoreShrugging Off Positive: Ayn Rand Essay1687 Words   |  7 Pagesimagines a positive person in society, many people may come to mind. Abraham Lincoln, Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King Jr., and many more are positive influences on the society of the world today. A positive influence in the society is someone who lets his or her beliefs be known in a respectful way, are non-violent, and do not force opinions on anyone else. Ayn Rand is a positive influence on society because she was an author who wrote philosophical novels that showed her views in a non-violent manner,Read MoreThe Pain Of The Form-, Beloved, And Man s Search For Meaning Essay1622 Words   |  7 Page sSuffering —regardless of the form— has the ability to mentally and physically destroy an individual. One cannot measure the amount of pain an individual has sustained, but each person’s meaning of life can be easily observed. Despite death being the ending result of life, one can either dwell on this ending result or live in the here and now—making the best of every situation for a happier outcome. When asked by a doctor to describe the pain on a scale from one to ten, one individual may considerRead MoreSocial Contract Theory: Natural Rights and Personhood Within Democracy 1387 Words   |  6 Pagesman should be treated and/or to what rights he is so entitled must begin with what ‘man’ is. There is no doubt man has an inherent value that entities such as flies and trees lack. This value does not come from mere physical form, but from what comprises personhood; because these things can be separated from our physical form they can fail to b e developed or instantiated within man’s physical form. Natural rights, and the debate about what they are and where they come from, have been long-standingRead MoreThe Difference Between Emotion and Reason1517 Words   |  7 PagesEmotion is an internal decision. It is ones mind, sometimes consciously and sometimes subconsciously, balancing, integrating and juggling various different, and often conflicting, facts, experiences and concepts. It is a subjective, psychological experience, correlated with a group of physiological reactions arising in response to some situation. It is often held that one can have no emotional self-control, that an emotion cannot be consciously willed to occur at any particular time, that emotions

Anti-Competitive Behavior The Case Of Allcare Ipa Free Essays

Free Trade Commission (FTC). The main role of FTC, created in 1914, is outlined in its website â€Å"Federal Trade Commission† (http://www. ftc. We will write a custom essay sample on Anti-Competitive Behavior: The Case Of Allcare Ipa or any similar topic only for you Order Now gov/ftc/about. shtm) which states that â€Å"It is the only federal agency with both consumer protection and competition jurisdiction in broad sectors of the economy†. As such, it â€Å"pursues vigorous and effective law enforcement, advances consumers’ interests†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The FTC was originally created to prevent unfair methods of competition in commerce, but through the years, its role has widened to cover consumer protection in broad terms. It must be noted that FTC’s Bureau of Competition promotes and protects vigorous competition by seeking out and challenging â€Å"anticompetitive conduct in the marketplace†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"†¦promotes competition in industries where consumer impact is high, such as health care†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ((http://www. ftc. gov/ftc/about. shtm). The very nature of health care, a very basic need, explains why practices in this field is a major concern for FTC. AllCare IPA is comprised of independent physicians that have joined together to provide a comprehensive network of multiple specialties, developed specifically for the patient’s health plan. (http://www. allcareipa. com/faqs/default. aspx). Its main office is found in Modesto, California. â€Å"Since its formation, AllCare and its physicians have contracted with Preferred Provider Organizations (PPOs) to provide fee-for service care. In PPO arrangements, the payer compensates the physicians for services provided under agreed-upon fee schedules. Such arrangements may or may not entail financial risk-sharing or clinical integration. † ((â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†). In February 2009, FTC found AllCare IPA guilty of price-fixing and violated anticompetitive laws by â€Å"orchestrating and carrying out agreements among their members to refuse, and threaten to refuse, to deal with insurance providers, unless they raised the fees paid to the groups’ doctors†. FTC ruled that AllCare’s conduct in setting fees for payers and refusing to deal with payers constitutes illegal price-fixing, and violates federal law. In addition, the FTC contends AllCare engaged in any activity that might justify collective agreements on the prices its members would accept for their services. The groups’ physicians did not share financial risk in providing medical services, did not collaborate in any program to monitor and modify clinical practice patterns or otherwise integrate the delivery of their services. According to the FTC, between 2005 and 2006, AllCare acted to restrain competition on fee-for-service contracts by facilitating, entering into, and implementing agreements to fix the prices and other contract terms with PPO payers; to engage in collective negotiations over the terms and conditions of dealing with such payers; and to have members refrain from negotiating with such payers on terms other than those approved by the group. †. (â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†). Penalties against AllCare. AllCare has been barred to enter into similar agreements because according to FTC’s Acting Director of the Bureau of Competition David Wales, â€Å"when health care providers decide to purse personal gain through unlawful price-fixing, consumers are often forces to either pay higher prices or forgo vital treatments they can no longer afford†. (â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†). The Commission’s proposed consent orders are designed to eliminate the illegal anticompetitive conduct alleged in the complaints. They would prohibit AllCare from entering into or facilitating agreements between or among physicians: 1) to negotiate on behalf of any physician with any payer; 2) to refuse to deal, or threaten to refuse to deal, with any payer; 3) to designate the terms, conditions, or requirements upon which any physician deals, or is willing to deal, with any payer, including, but not limited to price terms; 4) not to deal individually with any payer, or not to deal with any payer through any arrangement other than one involving AllCare, respectively. The order prohibits AllCare from exchanging information among physicians concerning whether, or on what terms, to contract with a payer and from encouraging, suggesting, advising, pressuring, inducing, or attempting to induce anyone into any actions otherwise prohibited by the order. I believe that there must always be balance in any decision that affects two opposing parties, in this case the doctors and their patients. While FTC must protect the welfare of the consumers and must do so vigorously and vigilantly, it must also take into account the needs of the doctors to protect themselves and their livelihoods against threats from the same persons who come to them for treatment. Already, many doctors are discouraged to practice their profession for fear of lawsuits, such as medical malpractice, and the tremendous cost implications these lawsuits bring. I agree that physicians practice must be subject to regulation as it is prone to abuse. However, while medical care is a very basic commodity and patients, as consumers, have every right to be protected against unjust and unlawful practices in the health care industry, so do Doctors have rights to protect themselves and their livelihoods. I personally believe that that FTC ruling was too biased in favor of the consumers/patients. But of course, this is America, and the customer is always king. Works Cited â€Å"AllCare IPA: Frequently Asked Questions†. 2005. 6 August 2009. (http://www. allcareipa. com/faqs/default. aspx) Copy of the FTC Decision on AllCare. February 2009. August 6, 2009. (http://www. crowell. com/pdf/ManagedCare/Independent-Practice-Associates-Medical-Group. pdf) â€Å"Free Trade Commission†. Free Trade Commission. 6 August 2009. (http://www. ftc. gov/ftc/about. shtm) â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†. 24 December 2008. 6 August 2009. (http://www. ftc. gov/ftc/about. shtm) How to cite Anti-Competitive Behavior: The Case Of Allcare Ipa, Papers

Anti-Competitive Behavior The Case Of Allcare Ipa Free Essays

Free Trade Commission (FTC). The main role of FTC, created in 1914, is outlined in its website â€Å"Federal Trade Commission† (http://www. ftc. We will write a custom essay sample on Anti-Competitive Behavior: The Case Of Allcare Ipa or any similar topic only for you Order Now gov/ftc/about. shtm) which states that â€Å"It is the only federal agency with both consumer protection and competition jurisdiction in broad sectors of the economy†. As such, it â€Å"pursues vigorous and effective law enforcement, advances consumers’ interests†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The FTC was originally created to prevent unfair methods of competition in commerce, but through the years, its role has widened to cover consumer protection in broad terms. It must be noted that FTC’s Bureau of Competition promotes and protects vigorous competition by seeking out and challenging â€Å"anticompetitive conduct in the marketplace†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"†¦promotes competition in industries where consumer impact is high, such as health care†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ((http://www. ftc. gov/ftc/about. shtm). The very nature of health care, a very basic need, explains why practices in this field is a major concern for FTC. AllCare IPA is comprised of independent physicians that have joined together to provide a comprehensive network of multiple specialties, developed specifically for the patient’s health plan. (http://www. allcareipa. com/faqs/default. aspx). Its main office is found in Modesto, California. â€Å"Since its formation, AllCare and its physicians have contracted with Preferred Provider Organizations (PPOs) to provide fee-for service care. In PPO arrangements, the payer compensates the physicians for services provided under agreed-upon fee schedules. Such arrangements may or may not entail financial risk-sharing or clinical integration. † ((â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†). In February 2009, FTC found AllCare IPA guilty of price-fixing and violated anticompetitive laws by â€Å"orchestrating and carrying out agreements among their members to refuse, and threaten to refuse, to deal with insurance providers, unless they raised the fees paid to the groups’ doctors†. FTC ruled that AllCare’s conduct in setting fees for payers and refusing to deal with payers constitutes illegal price-fixing, and violates federal law. In addition, the FTC contends AllCare engaged in any activity that might justify collective agreements on the prices its members would accept for their services. The groups’ physicians did not share financial risk in providing medical services, did not collaborate in any program to monitor and modify clinical practice patterns or otherwise integrate the delivery of their services. According to the FTC, between 2005 and 2006, AllCare acted to restrain competition on fee-for-service contracts by facilitating, entering into, and implementing agreements to fix the prices and other contract terms with PPO payers; to engage in collective negotiations over the terms and conditions of dealing with such payers; and to have members refrain from negotiating with such payers on terms other than those approved by the group. †. (â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†). Penalties against AllCare. AllCare has been barred to enter into similar agreements because according to FTC’s Acting Director of the Bureau of Competition David Wales, â€Å"when health care providers decide to purse personal gain through unlawful price-fixing, consumers are often forces to either pay higher prices or forgo vital treatments they can no longer afford†. (â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†). The Commission’s proposed consent orders are designed to eliminate the illegal anticompetitive conduct alleged in the complaints. They would prohibit AllCare from entering into or facilitating agreements between or among physicians: 1) to negotiate on behalf of any physician with any payer; 2) to refuse to deal, or threaten to refuse to deal, with any payer; 3) to designate the terms, conditions, or requirements upon which any physician deals, or is willing to deal, with any payer, including, but not limited to price terms; 4) not to deal individually with any payer, or not to deal with any payer through any arrangement other than one involving AllCare, respectively. The order prohibits AllCare from exchanging information among physicians concerning whether, or on what terms, to contract with a payer and from encouraging, suggesting, advising, pressuring, inducing, or attempting to induce anyone into any actions otherwise prohibited by the order. I believe that there must always be balance in any decision that affects two opposing parties, in this case the doctors and their patients. While FTC must protect the welfare of the consumers and must do so vigorously and vigilantly, it must also take into account the needs of the doctors to protect themselves and their livelihoods against threats from the same persons who come to them for treatment. Already, many doctors are discouraged to practice their profession for fear of lawsuits, such as medical malpractice, and the tremendous cost implications these lawsuits bring. I agree that physicians practice must be subject to regulation as it is prone to abuse. However, while medical care is a very basic commodity and patients, as consumers, have every right to be protected against unjust and unlawful practices in the health care industry, so do Doctors have rights to protect themselves and their livelihoods. I personally believe that that FTC ruling was too biased in favor of the consumers/patients. But of course, this is America, and the customer is always king. Works Cited â€Å"AllCare IPA: Frequently Asked Questions†. 2005. 6 August 2009. (http://www. allcareipa. com/faqs/default. aspx) Copy of the FTC Decision on AllCare. February 2009. August 6, 2009. (http://www. crowell. com/pdf/ManagedCare/Independent-Practice-Associates-Medical-Group. pdf) â€Å"Free Trade Commission†. Free Trade Commission. 6 August 2009. (http://www. ftc. gov/ftc/about. shtm) â€Å"FTC Settles Price-Fixing Charges Against Two Separate Doctors’ Groups†. 24 December 2008. 6 August 2009. (http://www. ftc. gov/ftc/about. shtm) How to cite Anti-Competitive Behavior: The Case Of Allcare Ipa, Papers

Human Computer Interaction Evaluation of Websites

Question: Write a report about the evaluation of information technology in respect to the objectives and effectiveness, features and accessibility of the websites along with the usability principles in context to Human Computer Interaction. Answer: Introduction: The following report presents the differential evaluation of two nominated websites 1: https://www.binglee.com.au and 2: https://www.kogan.com/au/ based on different aspects of information system in context to different factors like user interface design of the website, its accessibility, homepage pretest, web graphics, use of colours etc. The objective of presenting the critical evaluation of the two websites is whether the websites serving the purpose, accuracy, coverage of the respective products and other similar factors. Discussion: The nominated websites, Binglee and Kogan both are electronic stores located in Australia serves e-commerce service. The organizations are largely into the trading of electronic appliances of different variety as an online shopping option. For this purpose both the organizations have their own set and design of websites which helps to attract customers and easier way to find the products as per their requirement (Brown Gilchrist, 2016). Website of Binglee presents different tabs for its products according to the variety of the electronic appliances like computers, cameras, home appliances, small or medium size appliances, fitness/ health etc. Just below these tabs it presents a promoting tab which reflects different offers to attract buyers like products offering on discounts, tie in arrangements of products or any other promotional offer to take the clients attention. The website also presents option for catalogues, store location (for clients if they want to choose the products physically), other small or regular promotional offers followed by trending or new launched products along with the options for registration and log in facilities so that the details and information of the customers can be maintained in records (Cook, et al. 2015). On the other hand, website of Kogan presents its website for the products according to the department, which further segregates the appliances in different variety, according to brand of the appliances. The website further follows a small tab presenting the promotional offer in terms of bargains and discount options. The website additionally provides different tabs for the different class of appliances like LED TVs, Cellular phones, home appliances in terms of both brand and types of appliances. For any business websites there are certain important and vital features that every enterprise has to maintain in order to operate its online business successfully (Hashim, 2015). Hence, the evaluation in regard to the key features for both the business websites, Binglee and Kogan are mentioned below: Logical Roadmap: It is very important to present and maintain this feature for any business websites because it presents the usefulness for the users apart from making it attractive and pleasing (Le Bourgeois, et al 2016). For the purpose of search ranks in Google, it requires and considers the content and structure of the website hence it is a vital feature. In case of Binglee.com the structure of the website is according to the types of appliances and promotions along with other relevant information for the users. Whereas the website of Kogan.com presents the structure according to the department of appliances and according to brand followed by promotional offers. Business Information: Second important feature is featuring the business information of the organizations like store locations in form of directions and maps, contact details, help centre, corporate head office location etc. In the nominated website, Bingle.com the information of its store location is mention along with the direction and maps (Lee, Thomas Baskerville, 2015). While in the website of Kogan.com different information for contact is present along with the head office location. Clear Navigation: This feature is related to the location directions and maps provided in the website. It means that the map is useless if it does not provide a navigation facility to the users (Lioukas, Reuer Zollo, 2016). This facility is present in both the websites nominated for the presentation of the report. Security: Security, one of the most crucial features any website must have. It is very important for a business websites to secure its website with the relevant security certificate in terms of credit card details of users like credit card numbers, encryption details etc. In both the nominated website security in terms of online payment details and encryption is maintained (Melin-Gonzlez Bulchand-Gidumal, 2016). Social Media Promotion: in order to run an online business successfully, an important key is the promotional activity of the website (Schwalbe, 2015). These Days there are lot of social Medias has come into existence, like facebook, twitter, linkedin, pinterst, youtube etc. It is the duty of the business planner to opt and execute on these social networking sites to promote their business websites to attract as many customers. Mobile Versions: In the present era, it is very important to any application or website readily available on mobile phones or other communicating mobile appliance. Most of the users use smart phones, tablets hence it is very important to have the website operated from these gadgets. In this context both the organizations have maintained this features and the facility is readily available as mobile versions (Rivard Aubert, 2015). Good Hosting: It is very important for an organization to be a good host in case of online business operator. It clarifies that the websites are required to be updated and maintained at a regular interval. There should be hundred percent technical assistance on the website to the users as well as there should be relative link provided for the better assistance and reliability of the products of the companies (Xiang, Magnini, Fesenmaier, 2015). In case of nominated website Binglee, seems to be maintaining their website and providing good technical assistance in terms of the relative information and details of several requirements. Whereas Kogan organization has also seemed to maintain its website in consistent to technical assistance and other necessities. Moreover, apart from the aforementioned features, a business website has to eye catchy and attractive in terms to provide a good impression especially for the first time users. Use of colours, designs, encryption of data, segregation of product types etc should be in proper content so that the website becomes user friendly (Cook, et al. 2015). In case of nominated website Binglee.com the homepage seems o be quite attractive as the colours and designs used in the website are brighter and eye catchy. The giant tab reflecting different promotional offers has been designed in different colours and designsto make it more flashy and attractive. One section of the tab is designed in the red colours and balloons to flash the sale season for the users while the other tab is designed in blue and white bright colour combination to promote the tie in arrangement of products. The tab has been designed in such a way that any user will get attracted and goes through the information and details even if the user was not intended to. The other tabs of the website reflecting different types of appliances and gadgets are designed in light blue colour which is again quite attractive as its a bright colour and more eye catchy (Xiang, Magnini, Fesenmaier, 2015). Apparently, in case of the second nominated website Kogan.com the design and colours of home page is very simple compared to the first nominated website. In this website, the designer has used pastel colours for the tabs flashing department of products and brand names while the encrypted names in simple black colour, which seems little less attractive. The website further provides different tabs of its products as per the department types and brand types flashing the picture and names of the products. In comparison to the first website it does not reflect the page very attractive instead it looks pretty dull as the colours used in the pictures also are not brighter colours. Hence, even if the company privides products in simpler and user-friendly manner, it might lack in attracting new or proposed clients (Brown Gilchrist, 2016). Further, on proceeding to the particular products on each of the nominated website, it seems that Binglee is still one-step ahead. On licking the particular product on Binglee.com it flashes that particular product in a bigger picture along with the relevant information and details. Whereas in case of Kogan.com it reflects different options and varieties of that particular product with a smaller, picture and details. We can say that the organization is providing detailed information and variety of products but it is quite a longer process for users point of view. In the present conditions, users are more time saving seeker rather than any other factor hence it is not attracting users to click and choose for a particular product repeatedly (Brown Gilchrist, 2016). It can also be stated that the website of Binglee company is more concise and structured compared to Kogan company. HCI Design Principles: HCI refers to the findings of human computer interaction and guidance on its usage in order to create and design a website. In the study of Information System, there are certain principles regulating human computer interaction on its usage and utility (Cook, et al. 2015). Hence, both the nominated websites, Binglee and Kogan are required to maintain and comply the principles laid in terms of HCI in information technology system. Learnability Principle: Any organization opting for online business has to comply with the learnability principle against Human computer interaction principles (Cook, et al. 2015). It states that the website operation should provide ease of accessibility so that there can be effective and significant interaction and maximum level of performance especially to the new users. In context to the above-mentioned explanation nominated website Binglee.com and Kogan.com the hosts have complied with the learnability principle as they provide user-friendly accessibility. Even if the user is new it will not be difficult to operate these websites. However, on comparing the two websites it can be said that Kogan.com is little more structured for new users as it provides tabs for its products presenting via bigger design and image of products. While in case of Binglee.com this clarity is little less in terms of products feature. Flexibility Principle: This principle states that there should flexibility in the ways of accessing the websites between users to exchange information (Cook, et al. 2015). In case of Binglee.com and Kogan.com this feature is in compliance as both the websites places the flexibility for using the respective websites in multiple ways. Robustness Principle: This is an important principle to be followed and complied by all the business websites. It states that the there should be adequate and appropriate support for the recovery of information to the users in order to determine and accomplish successful achievement. In case of nominated websites Binglee and Kogan, it is very important for the Information Technology system team to provide and maintain this principle. There should be proper and appropriate support for recovery between the users and information system (Brown Gilchrist, 2016). Recommendations: On analyzing the surveys and principles in relation to the websites of Binglee and Kogan the required recommendation has been provided. As it is mentioned earlier that the kogan website is little dull in attracting the users in terms of its colours used in the tabs whereas Binglee.com is more attractive. Hence, Kongan entity is recommended to change its color combination to make its home page little more eye catchy. Additionally, the Kogan website is recommended to change its homepage design as well to present its product in more structured way i.e. different types of appliances divided according to its usage in one side. While as per brand names on the other side as well as the locations of the stores and directions and maps so that it becomes more user friendly (Brown Gilchrist, 2016). Whereas the website of Binglee.com is recommended to provide little more varieties and details on its each product range so that the clients get different varieties and hence prospect clients are ex pected to join in. Conclusion: The above report dealt with the evaluation of information technology in respect to the objectives and effectiveness, features and accessibility of the websites along with the usability principles in context to Human Computer Interaction. The evaluation has been reported for two nominated websites Binglee and Kogan, both dealing in electronic appliances through e-commerce. The report has been presented on analysis of various aspects like attractive home page, user-friendly accessibility, designing, support for recovery etc. Upon analyzing these aspects, a section on recommendation to improve the respective websites has also been mentioned in the solution. Reference List: Bilbao-Osorio, B., Dutta, S., Lanvin, B. (2013). 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Using information technology, communication and citizen science in alien invasive plant management in Kruger National Park, South Africa.Botanists of the twenty-first century: roles, challenges and opportunities: Quels botanistes pour le 21e sicle? Mtiers, enjeux et opportunits, 103. Lee, A. S., Thomas, M., Baskerville, R. L. (2015). Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact.Information Systems Journal,25(1), 5-21. Lioukas, C. S., Reuer, J. J., Zollo, M. (2016). Effects of Information Technology Capabilities on Strategic Alliances: Implications for the Resource Based View.Journal of Management Studies. Lohrke, F. T., Frownfelter-Lohrke, C., Ketchen, D. J. (2016). The role of information technology systems in the performance of mergers and acquisitions.Business Horizons,59(1), 7-12. Melin-Gonzlez, S., Bulchand-Gidumal, J. (2016). A model that connects information technology and hotel performance.Tourism Management,53, 30-37. Morgan, T. R., Richey, R. G. (2016). Developing a Returns Competency: The Influence of Collaboration and Information Technology. InLets Get Engaged! Crossing the Threshold of Marketings Engagement Era(pp. 399-400). Springer International Publishing. Rivard, S., Aubert, B. A. (2015).Information technology outsourcing. Routledge. Schnoll, H. J. (2015).E-government: Information, technology, and transformation. Routledge. Schwalbe, K. (2015).Information technology project management. Cengage Learning. Star, S. L. (2016). 6 Misplaced Concretism and Concrete Situations: Feminism, Method, and Information Technology.Boundary Objects and Beyond: Working with Leigh Star, 143. Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y., Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology.MIS quarterly,36(1), 157-178. Xiang, Z., Magnini, V. P., Fesenmaier, D. R. (2015). Information technology and consumer behavior in travel and tourism: Insights from travel planning using the internet.Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,22, 244-249.

A Helpful and Concise Summary of Othello Act 1

A Helpful and Concise Summary of 'Othello' Act 1 Hold tight and delve into William Shakespeares tragedy Othello with this summary of Act 1.  This analysis covers  the entire play, starting from the opening scene in which the prolific playwright wastes no time  establishing Iagos hatred of Othello. Better understand  this beautifully written drama  with this  scene-by-scene guide. Act 1, Scene 1 In Venice Iago and Roderigo discuss Othello. Roderigo immediately addresses  Iago’s disdain for Othello; â€Å"Thou told’st me thou didst hold him in thy hate,† he says. Iago complains that instead of employing him as his lieutenant, Othello employed Michael Cassio who has no experience for the job. Iago was employed as a mere ensign to Othello. Roderigo responds; â€Å"By heaven, I rather would have been his hangman.† Iago tells Roderigo that he will stay in Othello’s service only to exact revenge upon him when the time is right. Iago and Roderigo do not refer to Othello by name in this scene but rather by his race; calling him the moor or the thick lips. The pair plot to inform Brabanzio, Desdemona’s father, that his daughter has run off with Othello and married him and that he is an unsuitable match, citing his race and impulsivity. The audience discovers that Roderigo is in love with Desdemona, as Brabanzio points out he has already warned him off her; â€Å"In honest plainness thou hast heard me say my daughter is not for thee.† This explains Roderigo’s hatred of Othello. The pair goad Brabanzio, and Iago says, â€Å"I am the one sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs.† Brabanzio checks Desdemona’s room and discovers she is missing. He launches a full-scale search for his daughter and regretfully tells Roderigo that he would prefer him to be his daughters husband and not Othello; â€Å"O would you had had her.† Iago resolves to leave, as he does not want his master to know he has double-crossed him. Brabanzio promises Roderigo that he will reward him for his efforts. â€Å"Oh, good Roderigo. I will deserve your pains,† he says. Act 1, Scene 2 Iago tells Othello that Desdemona’s father and Roderigo are pursuing him. Iago lies, telling Othello that he challenged them.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Nay, but he prated, and spoke such scurvy and provoking terms against your honor that with the little godliness I have, I did full hard forbear him,† he says. Othello answers that his honor and services to the state speak for themselves, and he will convince Brabanzio that he is a good match for his daughter. He tells Iago that he loves Desdemona. Cassio and his officers enter, and Iago tries to convince Othello that it is his enemy, and he should hide. But Othello shows strength of character by staying. â€Å"I must be found. My parts, my title, and my perfect soul shall manifest me rightly,† he says. Cassio explains that the Duke needs to speak to Othello about the conflict in Cyprus. Iago tells Cassio about Othello’s marriage. Brabanzio arrives with swords drawn. Iago draws his sword on Roderigo knowing that they have the same intention and that Roderigo will not kill him but will collude with the pretense. Brabanzio is angry that Othello has eloped with his daughter and again uses his race to put him down, saying that it is ridiculous to think she turned down wealthy and worthy gentleman to run off with him. â€Å"She shunned the wealthy curled darlings of our nation, †¦t’incur a general mock, run from her guardage to the sooty bosom of such a thing as thou,† he says. Brabanzio also accuses Othello of drugging his daughter. Brabanzio wants to put Othello in prison, but Othello says that the Duke requires his services and will also need to speak to him, so they decide to go to the Duke together to decide Othello’s fate.

Nicolas agusut otto essays

Nicolas agusut otto essays Although he had little technical training Nicolaus Otto overcame these early challenges and changed the world with his more reliable, powerful and lighter engine that changed the world. Born on the 14th of June 1832 in Holzhausen Germany. Ottos hometown was right on the Rhine River where water power ruled. His father, the village postman, died when he was young but his mother raised him well in a good area with good schools and plans to train young Nicolaus to become a lawyer.(woodford 203). Early on his mother encouraged him to be a lawyer but after the failed German revolution of 1848 his mother decided he would be better off as a merchant.(204). Ottos worked in a textile mill owned by his brother for his first job. Then Otto trained and became a travelling salesman in Cologne in 1853. He was selling kitchenware such as pots, pans, knifes and silverware. He soon took an interest in engine technology first that was attempted by French man Eugene Lenior to power horse-drawn carriages and small factories. However Leniors engine would severely overheat and consumed far too much fuel (Lyle). In 1862 he conducted his first tests with a four-stroke engine, but these did not bring the desired results due to the explosive nature of the combustion and a weak ignition system. However, after Otto met Eugen Langen, a technician and proprietor of sugar factory, he gave up his profession as travelling salesman, and in 1864 they established N.A. Otto ln(Basher 114). At the 1867 World Exhibition in Paris one of the newly designed and developed by Otto and Langen was a very powerful atmospheric gas or 2 stroke engine developed by the small company was awarded the Gold Medal for the most economical power for small business. The world fair was almost a disaster, the French ...

Information Management, Knowledge Management and Organizations Essay

Information Management, Knowledge Management and Organizations - Essay Example However, as Blaise Pascal said," We must learn our limits. We are all something, but none of us are everything." Therefore integrating the knowledge base of the entire length and breadth of the organization and the ability to utilize this collective knowledge and make it available becomes important. Knowledge management is a relatively newer concept and has been received with as much enthusiasm as well as skepticism. However, its awareness has been continually increasing. Knowledge management is the complete system of finding knowledge or creating it, storing it and using it appropriately. Although Knowledge Management is often associated with the information and technology industry, it undeniably exists in all kinds of jobs and all occupations. Argyris (1977) defines organizational learning as the process of "detection and correction of errors." In his view, organizations learn through individuals acting as agents for them: "The individuals' learning activities, in turn, are facilitated or inhibited by an ecological system of factors that may be called an organizational learning system" (p. 117). ... A learning organization needs to address a number of issues in order that it meets its targets. It addition to working with its employees as a team as well as individuals, it also needs to behave a complete management buy-in and commitment to the process. This is emphasized in the Knowledge management forum by Thomas Brextel as "Knowledge management is the management of the organization towards the continuous renewal of the organizational knowledge base - this means e.g. creation of supportive organizational structures, facilitation of organizational members, putting IT-instruments with emphasis on teamwork and diffusion of knowledge (as e.g. groupware) into place." Organizational knowledge is the sum of all the knowledge accumulated gradually over time by all its employees, collected and shared. This also means that it depends on personal knowledge as well as inclination to share that knowledge with others. "Characteristics of the work or problem situation determine the ways that information is used and assessed to be helpful (or otherwise)." (Knowing Organization, Chun Wee Choo) This is especially true that when employees are singled out for promotions and incentives based on their knowledge, the urge to share it with others becomes lesser. To counter this management should promote an environment where the employees who share tips that prove to be beneficial to organization are recognized and rewarded. In an article in CIO.com, the author also expresses a similar view that, "Linking KM directly to job performance, creating a safe climate for people to share ideas and recognizing people who contribute to the KM effort (especially those people w hose

Computer Forensic Software Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

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Psychological Theories of Chronic Pain

Psychological Theories of Chronic Pain The operant approach to chronic pain was intended to concentrate upon external pain-induced responses and the social implications of the nature of feedback. The operant model has been particularly described by Fordyce et al (1968, 1976) based upon the work of other individuals in the behavioural field, for example Skinner. The operant theory implies that the genesis of the pain should be distinguished from pain behaviours and the articulation of pain.External displays of pain such as wincing may be conditioned just as any other type of behaviour. If the patient receives positive feedback in response to pain behaviours, they may remain after the usual time of healing for that ailment. There is a respectable body of evidence to justify the use of the operant model in response to chronic pain, yet there is a relatively miniscule level of consensus about why they work and the validity of their theoretical foundations. The operant theory is supported by research projects that intimate the success of behavioural treatments, but there are several problematic elements in these studies which have been recently addressed. The troubling issues include the antecedent belief that all pain behaviours are dysfunctional, the obstacles to continuing the learned behaviours subsequent to treatment and the reluctance of some chronic pain patients to embrace operant modes of treatment. Essentially, the nature of the sum of the problems is dualistic, and can either be addressed as complications with interpreting pain behaviours or the inevitable failure rate that all treatments face. These issues, salient though they are, are not exhaustive. The operant model fails to recognise the fact that the patient’s personal interpretation of their pain and the changes they are experiencing maybe important. Acknowledging this can clear the way for cognitive theories to add something to operant methods of treatment. Indeed, elements that influence behaviour in general and pain behaviour in particular are complex and multi-faceted. It is seldom evident that a single cause has led to a single effect. Although it is true that pain-related behaviours are often modified during the course of a treatment programme, it is not necessarily true that it is for the reasons uppermost in the minds of the experts monitoring them. In brief, rational thought cannot condone the notion that the operant model of chronic pain is true because treatment programmes utilising behavioural methods have been shown to alter the behaviour of patients suffering from chronic pain. A particular assertion that has come under scrutiny is the idea that patients modify their verbal expressions of pain in response to reactions from spouses. The methods and logic that lead to this conclusion are questionable and so must be their perceived contribution to the validity of the operant model. Further, some studies claiming to provide empirical support for the operant model only partially adhere to its theoretical roots. Other studies which are more methodologically sound have suspect sample gathering procedures. The findings of these studies still hold merit for the cognitive model of chronic pain, though ardent followers of the operant model will inevitably be disappointed. The fact is that the operant model of chronic pain does not have as strong a body of empirical evidence to back it up as its patrons would like. As a result of the questionable reliability of the operant theory, many researchers have begun to actively espouse the cognitive-behavioural theories of chr onic pain. Cognitive Behavioural Account of Chronic PainsThe cognitive-behavioural approach to chronic pain purported to contain the essentials of the operant account of chronic pain, but added space for human emotions, cognitions and mental coping mechanisms. This approach, like surgical and pharmacological interventions, attempt to eliminate or reduce it. Rates of failure in achieving this have led researchers to turn from attempted pain reduction to other objectives like active rehabilitation. One study compared and contrasted two behavioural treatments for ongoing pain.The first treatment focused on abandoning strivings to overcome pain and invest more energy in achieving other aims in life. The second treatment was a traditional cognitive behavioural treatment stressing the development of pain-reducing mechanisms. The treatment incorporating acceptance and re-focussing proved more successful than attempts to master the pain in patients suffering from chronic pain. Initial formulations of a cognitive behavioural approach to chronic pain were predicated upon the realisation that programmes with the behavioural label did not contain only behavioural content. Behavioural experts acknowledged the necessity of addressing the cognitive functioning of a patient as well as his or her behavioural patterns. At present, the role of cognition in reporting extremity of pain, endeavours to successfully deal with pain, emotions and level of pain-related incapacity is solidly documented. The relationship between cognitive functioning and pain has revealed a number of important themes. The way in which patients mentally interpret their pain is predictive of their response and their level of functioning. For example, patients to perceive their pain as an indication of more damage often spend more energy attempting to avoid their pain and become less able to function naturally as a result. Patients who catastrophise their pain may experience augmented levels of d epression compared with those who do not. Depression has also been linked to behavioural functioning and both of these may be affected by the patient’s attempts to predict or control his pain. The sum of the implications of these findings points to the near certainty that cognitive functioning must be considered when attempting to construct any comprehensive and effective model of chronic pain. The cognitive behavioural theory does not go as far as to suggest that certain cognitions lead to pain; the relationship is not as simplistic as that. There is substantial evidence to suggest that cognitive activity related to pain can help to create coping mechanisms that are either helpful or dysfunctional. The nature of the coping mechanisms can directly affect the degree to which chronic pain infringes on continued functioning. Some behaviourists allude to the role of cognitions in their research by referring to external or environmental factors. Strict behaviourism continues to be the preferred method of treatment and as such, willcontinue to concentrate on the transformation of overt behaviours. Evidence for the need to include cognitive and other factors in dealing with chronic pain is becoming increasingly pressing, and it must be acknowledged that including one treatment session on cognitive theory and praxis does not magically transform a behavioural programme into a cognitive behavioural programme. Even the cognitive behavioural theory itself is in need of more complete incorporation of cognitive methods.There are simple questions that can be raised in the minds of chronic pain patients that may transform the way that they think about and respond to their pain. The claims of balanced research pale in comparison to the pressing needs of patients suffering daily who could benefit from cognitive interve ntions. Treatment for chronic pain must be addressed in terms of cognition and behaviour; even if behaviour is the founding principle upon which a treatment is based, it must be recognised that behaviour acquires meaning in a cognitive sphere. There have been propositions to reformulate the theoretical construction of the cognitive behavioural approach. Modifications ofthe approach start with the conception that the issues arising from the presence of chronic pain stem from patient reactions to their pain.Reactions are conceptualised as covering the sum of cognitive processes and not merely external actions. Dividing characteristics between patients who are anxious and suffering a notable level o ncapacitation and those who are able to maintain a level of functioning despite their pain are not found in the sensations of pain experienced by the patient but in the content of the internal cognitive assessment the patient carries out about their own pain. Some cognitive behavioural appraisals of pain are primarily concerned with the meaning that the individual patient attributes to his or her pain. The reformulated cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain proposes that the interaction of various phenomenon such as internal appraisals of pain, learning history, mood, avoidance behaviours and environmental influences can become habitual to an extent that negative consequences of the pain, such as level of disability, may persist despite the removal of the sensory aspect of the pain. Motor behaviours that attempt to evade the pain in some way may continue after the pain has subsided or lessened and therefore the cognitions that prompted those beliefs continue. An acute sense of worry or anxiety may heighten safety or defence mechanisms perpetuate an autonomic arousal that maintains positive feedback for the notion that there is something wrong with the patient. Additionally, psychological dysfunction such as depression or mild panic can augment the chances of patients making calculative mistakes regarding their pain including assessing the pain as being worse than it actually i s. This will reinforce the cycles of avoidance that the patient has previously used. This particular reconfiguration of the cognitive behavioural model further accepts that anxiety and other maladaptive behaviours such asmisusing medica tion can easily invoke arousal encourage the continuance of maladaptive behaviours. The model also takes into account the drive for the patient to seek reassurance about their pain and they ways that they deal with it. They attempt to reconcile any feedback received with their own beliefs about their pain and its related effects. Many chronic pain patients live with the trepidation that the continued existence of chronic pain indicates that further damage is being done to their bodies, which will in turn exacerbate the pain they experience. This may raise their levels of anxiety, which affects their ability to think rationally and calmly about their pain. They may request more medical procedures—tests or treatments—to provide empirical evidence to themselves about the state of their bodies. The reconceptualised model ind icates that the response of medical professionals in these situations may unknowingly encourage this kind of cognitive presumption and therefore positively reinforce incapacity or a passive response to chronic pain. The model articulated above is extensively based upon other cognitive behavioural models of chronic pain and can even take into account theories about the nature of the meta-cognitions of the patient. If, for example, the patient cognitively interprets the pain or cognitions related to the pain indicate something negative about them as a person, then they may make efforts to overcome or control such thoughts in attempts to protect themselves from further negative consequen ces. For example, if the patient fears that thinking about his or her pain is going to make them ‘crazy’ then they may make strong efforts to alter their thoughts about the pain in order to stop themselves from descending into mental illness. This may stem from a fear that since their physical health has deteriorated, their mental health is under threat as well. In addition, some patients may think that the more time they spend thinking about their pain, the more serious and damaging it will be. The mo del asserts that the more cognitive energy is spent trying not to have pain-related thoughts, the more frequent they may become and the anxiety levels of the patient may continue to rise, prompting more and more pain-related cognitions. These thoughts may increase and the patient may feel that the more they have these thoughts, the more damage they are doing to themselves. Patients can end up caught in a web of cognitive gymnastics about their chronic pain, which diverts energy from dealing with the pain in constructive ways and maintaining a satisfactory level of functioning. The cognitions that a patient may develop concerning their chronic pain are the product of complex and intricate synthesis of experiences, cultural forces and even childhood learning. Patients do not interpret their pain only in terms of their immediate situation, but bring a variety of other elements to bear upon the way that they translate their ideas about pain and what it means into their responses to their own pain. If they have had pain in the past, or have had close relationships with individuals who have suffered pain, the express and null curriculum of their experiences will provide them with a set of beliefs about pain, what it means and what can be done about it. Cultural ideas about how to respond to pain will also affect their evaluations about the role of pain in the life of an individual. Spouseresponses can also be important factors in interpreting chronic pain.It can also be said that behaviour that demonstrates acceptance of chronic pain stems from the collaboration of past and present circumstances, as well as the emotive and interpersonal influences of the present. The way that the spouse expresses his or her beliefs about pain can either reinforce or contradict the beliefs of the patient. If the patient believes that his condition or experience of chronic pain has made him incapacitated and the spouse behaves solicitously, the patient’s beliefs about his incapacitation can be confirmed and may override any other input about the patient’s ability to function normally. The cognitive behavioural approach has built into its tenets the capacity for the patient to learn new coping strategies and introduce new cognitions without an awareness of the reality of his or her situation. This may be particularly pertinent in the area of medication, where any form of relief from pain, whether it is actual or perceived, may be a response to thoughts that the pain is out of control and the patient is unable to carry on without the presence of medication. The cognitive behavioral approach also asserts that these types of cognitions and resulting actions are cemented together and work in partnership to perpetuate one another. If a patient thinks that performing a particular action will lead to further damage and pain, he will avoid that action. Thus, he will not discover any information to the contrary and will continue to believe that the presence of pain means that he should not engage in such an activity. Even when patients try to accomplish certain activities, if they do so utilising protective methods, they may only confirm the danger of the activity in their minds and become dependent upon the protective measure instead of achieving their full potential in functioning. It is becoming more and more accepted that it is prudent to explore chronic pain from a cognitive behavioral approach. There are a number of reasons for this growing confidence. First, it has been asserted that the reformulated cognitive model explains the breadth of evidence more extensively than other models. Second, the hypotheses that are put forth by the model may easily be empirically tested in order to determine whether they are statistically supported and theoretically sound. This makes them infinitely more useful for the practical work of treatment, as they can offer statistically supported predictions for the type of treatment that will be most useful in various situations.Obtaining the ability to pinpoint pivotal cognitive functions should lead to accurate treatments in place of the relatively arbitrary approach sometimes implemented by professionals. For several years, the research and treatment of chronic pain concentrated on coping mechanisms as the pre-eminent behavioural factor in adjustment. Yet when coping approaches began to be compared with other types of behavioural approaches such as acceptance of chronic pain, significant conclusions were reached regarding the potential of the respective approaches to predict disability and distress. It has been asserted that there are fundamental problems with coping as a comprehensive adjustment mechanism. The issues with coping are conceptual and empirical in nature and stem from its reliance upon cognitive responses. An empirical study demonstrated that acceptance of chronic pain led to decreased intensity of symptoms and a better quality of life. Acceptance of pain was conclusively shown to be superior to attempting to cope with pain. It is possible that acceptance of pain may be accomplished through a variety of methods. Some of the treatments currently in use, such as those involving cognitive-behavioural methods can help to make pain more acceptable. This is true even for those cognitive-behavioural methods that focus on mastering pain. For example, it could be that diminished avoidance and augmented experience of pain as a result of more control that help patients to accept the pain in their lives. If patients are exposed to more pain they may develop diminished emotional reactions and begin to understand that pain intensity is different in various situations. This understanding can teach them that the pain they suffer is not as intense as they first thought. In addition, teaching methods of behavioural control can result in alternations to the patient’s internalised definition of a painful event, making it easier to endure. The role of values in a contextual cognitive-behavioural approach has been assessed in terms of the relationships between the values of chronic pain patients and the success of following their daily routines. It is often easy for chronic pain patients to expend great amounts of effort struggling with pain rather than focusing their energies on living according to their values. Living according to values was defined in this particular study as acting according to what they care most about and what they want their life to stand for. If pain is not then reduced, the patient may feel that not only have their limited amounts of energy been wasted, but they have also neglected their core purposes in life, which may result in further angst and anxiety. In a study examining the process of living according to personal values while suffering from chronic pain, 140 pain patients completed an inventory of values including categories such as family, friends, health, work and growth. The patients were also asked to record information regarding their pain, anxiety and depression. The results showed that the highest values for the patients were family and health, and the values of least importance overall were friends, growth and learning. The patients generally did not feel satisfied that they were living life according to their values, and this could be because of their level of physical and emotive functioning. The results of the study further demonstrated that those who achieved more succ ess atliving according to their values reported higher levels of acceptance, although acceptance could not reliably account for the sum of the success. Although patients felt that overall they were not living according to their values, there was a significantly higher rate of success at living according to family values than maintaining health. In practical terms, this means that out of the areas that patients value most, they were able to achieve much more success in one area, family than the other, health. Approaches to chronic pain that are contextually based deal with cognitive issues in a different manner than normalcogn itive-behavioural approaches. Approaches that are contextually based seek to change the operation of negative thoughts and the way in which they are experienced, which affects other behaviours. A large quantity of the work devoted to these types of approaches involves releasing maladaptive cognitive forces on behaviour and intensifying behavioural elasticity through cognitive de-fusion. Approaches that are founded upon values add an aspect to this type of treatment.Articulating values during treatment for chronic pain is equivalent to adding cognitive influences to behaviour sequences. On a practical level, the conceptualisations of the cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain can help to explain how patients deal with their pain, particularly the cognitive and meta-cognitive interactions they have with their symptoms and other factors thatinfluence their quality of life and their approach to their pain. If,for example, the patient is in the situation where the pain persists and further tests and treatments prove unsuccessful, it may be easy for the cognitive components of the mind of the patient to feel defeated and to acquire a learned helplessness. The patient may subconsciously or even consciously feel that all of their cognitive efforts to this point have proved futile and therefore they may be paralysed by the notion that whatever cognitive energy they put into dealing with their pain will be to no avail. They may even come to believe that any further medical intervention will be of no use to them. These types of thoughts can affect the effort that patient s put into their treatment.They may be less participatory and become increasingly passive even in the face of extensive medical procedures. They may cease to be emotionally and mentally invested in working with the medical professionals to achieve the best outcome possible for their situation.If patients feel that treatment will be useless and they make less effort, their treatment may not be as effective as it could have been. A treatment outcome that is less than optimal will only reinforce the patient’s sense of helplessness and they may even be dismissed as unhelpful or disengaged by medical staff. If these patients are viewed from the perspective of the cognitive behavioural model of chronic pain, however, they will be perceived not as unmotivated but as individuals with maladaptive cognitions. This understanding of their behaviour would make them prime candidates for cognitive interventions,where their chances of improvement would be quite high. There is much empirical support for the cognitive behavioural model, and it has been found consistent with a wide scope of researchout comes. There is particularly strong support for the idea that when patients worry about their pain, they are more likely to scrutinise their pain, which removes effort and thought from other activities and may make the pain worse than it is. These findings offer support for the cognitive theory that hypervigilance and anxiety are closely related. In other studies, anxiety and stress have been found to predict ambiguous ailments in patients suffering from chronic pain, which supports the theory that hypervigilance may create or exacerbate the ill health of the patient or at least the patients perception of the state of their health. In addition, pain-related trepidation was discovered to predict evading strategies more accurately than the intensity of the pain or the physical ailment. Here, the researchers concluded that their findings were not as supportive of the operant model of chronic pain as the cognitive behavioural model. Further, evidence exists that supports the notion that striving to avert pain-related cognitions may actually intensify pain sensations. Though it is advisable to treat this particular study with some caution, there is more substantial research to support the related notion that trying to block pain-related thoughts is counterproductive and will worsen anxiety. Related to this are the theories surrounding autonomic arousal, which have also received empirical backing. It has been asserted that patients suffering from chronic pain do not respond to pain in the same ways as patients whose pain is not chronic. This is true despite the fact that they do not demonstrate significant difference s from non-chronic pain patients in other areas. When the responses of chronic pain patients are measured with regard to distressing activities, the pain levels measured increased dramatically. This was not true for normal activities. Therefore, it seems safe to adhere to a model of chronic pain in which the state of arousal prompted by particular activities directly affects the pain experienced by the patient. Other elements in the cognitive behavioural model have also received support. In particular the role of medication and the appropriateness of use can affect patients’ complaints regarding symptoms and level of incapacity. One study examined the contrasting characteristics of chronic pain for patients whose pain could be justified by medical explanations and those whose pain could not be explained in medical terminology. The authors found remarkable variations in a number of variables, such as excessive prescribing and internal processing in the group of patients whose pain could not be medically explained. They went on to assert that when medical professionals in this type of situation intimate that it could be psychosomatic, they reinforce the patient’s self-concept of an ill person, if not physically, then mentally. Reacting in this fashion often fails to convince the patient that there is nothing wrong and instead, motivates their search for a plausible explanation f or their pain. They may demand more tests and interventions in search of legitimising their pain. The important point here is that the responses of medical professionals to patient expressions of pain can have a significant impact on pain-rel atedcognitions and thus on their responses to treatment. The sum of this evidence provides legitimisation for approaching chronic pain in a way that is much like the way that anxiety and obsessions are approached. This suggests that if obsessions can be treated, then so can maladaptive pain-related cognitions and behaviours. While the need for further research remains in certain areas, such as the clarification of the significance of safety behaviours and the effectiveness of specific cognitive behavioural intervention programmes, there is strong evidence that cognitive behavioural treatments will overtake operant treatments as the preferred method for addressing chronic pain. Sharp (2001) concludes his discussion of psychological theories of chronic pain by arriving at the destination of cognitive behavioural models akin to those used to treat anxiety. He regards the operant model as having too many problematic issues to be considered a reliable source of chronic pain treatment. He goes even further, to suggest that many of the cognitive behavioural modes currently in use are hampered by the fact that they continue to espouse behavioural principles that have outlived their usefulness. According to Sharp, reformulated cognitive theories are needed in order to satisfactorily assess patient cognitions regarding their pain. While behavioural factors should not be completely ignored, they should nonetheless always be considered within a cognitive framework. The concept of reformulating cognitive models is supported by the evidence and appears to be more helpful in finding real scientific meaning therein. Treatments involving cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour therapy for chronic pain in adults have been the subject of meta-analysis. The researchers recognised that there is persuasive data for the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) in augmenting the functioning ability of patients suffering from chronic pain. There is also conclusive evidence that CBT can enhance emotional states, reduce discomfort and minimise behaviour that stems from a sense of being incapacitated. However, it has been noted that in a clinical treatment context, CBT is not often presented as an option for individuals suffering from chronic pain. Physical, pharmacological and medical treatments are provided as options even though there is often less empirical evidence for their success. This study sought to do a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials in this area.The researchers indentified 25 trials that were appropriate candidates for meta-analysis and compared the effica cy of CBT with various other treatments. In this study, the experts were concerned primarily with two issues. The first was whether or not CBT is an effective treatment for chronic pain in the sense that it is better to undergo CBT than to have no treatment at all. The second issue was whether CBT was better than other available treatments which involve activity as part of the curriculum. The outcomes of the study indicated that CBT that are active in nature are effective. CBT made marked improvements in emotional state, intensity of pain and cognitive measures of coping with the pain. Additionally, pain-related behaviour and level of functioning, both in an individual and a social context were improved. The results of this study led to the conclusion that CBT is indeed an effective treatment for chronic pain in adults. So, too, is behavioural therapy. The study raised certain issues which would be best considered in other studies, because attempting to treat chronic pain from apsychological perspective is quite a difficult endeavour. The outcomes of such treatment cannot always be broken down to determine which variable caused or helped to cause a particular outcome. Especially where psychological methodologies and cognitive evaluations are concerned, there is an ambiguity in proving the cause and effect of research methods that is not easily overcome. The treatment of chronic pain must be recognised as an ongoing and complex process with a significantly complicating number of variables involved. Even when the greatest efforts are made to ensure the independent performance of professionals and to shield the patients from any hint of bias, the narrowing of treatment and research cond itions is extremely difficult. The acceptance of chronic pain involves intentionally allowing pain, with all of its cognitive and emotional implications, to be present in one’s life, when the willingness results in increased functioning capabilities for the patient. Acceptance means responding to pain without attempting to avoid or control it and continuing to function regardless of the presence of chronic pain. Acceptance is especially pertinent when previous attempts at control or avoidance have limited the quality of the patient’s life. Patients suffering from chronic pain who take steps to accept it report fewer instances of anxiety, medical intervention and depression. Two elements are needed to produce acceptance: pain willingness and activity engagement. The development of acceptance is an ongoing process that progresses with experience of pain and relevant social factors. Further, acceptance of chronic pain involves choosing not to become embroiled in fruitless internal struggles that may inc rease the intensity of the pain and its ability to disrupt active functioning. Acceptance is a new psychological approach and conceives human suffering in new terms.Acceptance is located in the cognitive and behavioural approaches and therefore has empirical psychological traditions to lend it credibility. One study demonstrated that diminishing anxiety and augmented acceptance of chronic pain might transfer sufferers from a dysfunctional coping approach to a successful one. The study empirically categorised patients suffering from chronic pain into three categories: dysfunctional, interpersonally distressed or adaptive copers. The researchers in the study believed that identifying the characteristics that distinguish one group from another may help to crystallise the behavioural mechanisms that facilitate acclimation to pain. The subjects in the study were classified according to the Multidimensional Pain Inventory and relative scores on pain acceptance and pain-related anxiety were examined. The results demonstrated that patients in the dysfunctional group cited more anxiety related to their chronic pain as well as lower acceptance of pain than those who were interpersonally distressed or copers. Add

Motivation Case Study on Gp Essay

When people join an organization, they bring with them certain drives and needs that affect their on-the-job performance. Sometimes these are immediately apparent, but often they not only are difficult to determine and satisfy but also vary greatly from one person to another. Understanding how needs create tensions which stimulate effort to perform and how effective performance brings the satisfaction of rewards is useful for managers. Several approaches to understanding internal drives and needs within employees are examined in the chapter. Each model makes a contribution to our understanding of motivation. All the models share some similarities. In general, they encourage managers not only to consider lower-order, maintenance, and extrinsic factors but to use higher-order, motivational, and intrinsic factors as well. Behavior modification focuses on the external environment by stating that a number of employee behaviors can be affected by manipulating their consequences. The alternative consequences include positive and negative reinforcement punishment, and extinction. Reinforcement can be applied according to either continuous or partial schedules. A blending of internal and external approaches is obtained through consideration of goal setting. Managers are encouraged to use cues—such as goals that are accepted, challenging, and specific—to stimulate desired employee behavior. In this way, goal setting, combined with the reinforcement of performance feedback, provides a balanced approach to motivation. . : . Additional approaches to motivation presented in this chapter are the expectancy and equity models. The- expectancy model states that motivation is a product of how much one wants something-and the probabilities that effort will lead to task accomplishment and reward. The formula is valence X expectancy X instrumentality = motivation. Valence is the strength of a person’s preference for an outcome. Expectancy is the strength of belief that one’s effort will be successful in accomplishing a task. Instrumentality is the strength of belief that successful performance will be followed by a reward. The expectancy and equity motivational models relate specifically to the  employee’s intellectual processes. The equity model has a double comparison in it a match between an employee’s perceived inputs and outcomes, coupled with a comparison with some referent person’s rewards for her or his input level. In addition, employees use the procedural justice model to assess the fairness of how rewards are distributed. Managers are encouraged to combine the perspectives of several models to create a complete motivational environment for their employees. Motivation: Motivation is the set of internal & external forces that cause an employee to choose a course of action and engage in certain behavior. A Model of Motivation : Although a few spontaneous human activities occur without motivation, nearly all conscious behavior is motivated or caused. Growing hair requires no motivation, but getting a haircut does. Eventually, anyone will fall asleep without motivation (although parents with young children may doubt this), but going to bed is a conscious act requiring motivation manager’s job is to identify employees’ drives and needs and to channel their behavior, to motivate them, toward task performance. The role of motivation in performance is summarized in the model of motivation in Figure 5.1. Internal needs and drives create tensions that are affected by one’s environment. For example, the need for food produces a tension of hunger. The hungry person then Environment Opportunity Needs and drive Tension Effont Performance Rewards Goals and incentive Ability Need satisfaction FIGURE 5.1 A Model of Mitivation examines the surroundings to see which foods (external incentives) are available to satisfy that hunger. Since environment affects one’s appetite for particular kinds of food a South Seas native may want roast fish, whereas a Colorado rancher may prefer grilled steak. Both persons are ready to achieve their goals, but they will seek different foods to satisfy their needs. This is an example of both individual differences and cultural influences in action. As we saw in the formulas in Chapter 1, potential performance (P) is a product of ability (A) and motivation (M). Results occur when motivated employs are provided with the opportunity (such as the proper training) to perform and the resources (such as the proper tools) to do so. The presence of goals and the awareness of incentives to satisfy one’s needs are also powerful motivational factors leading to the release of effort. When an employee is productive and the organization takes note of it, rewards will be distributed. If those rewards are appropriate in nature, timing, and distribution, the employee’s original needs and drives are satisfied. At that time, new needs may emerge and the cycle will begin again. It should be apparent, therefore, that an important starting point lies in understanding employee needs. Several traditional approaches to classifying drives and needs are presented first; these models attempt to help managers understand how employees’ internal needs affect their subsequent behaviors. These historical approaches are logically followed by a discussion of a systematic way of modifying employee behavior thought the use of rewards that satisfy those needs. Achievement Motivation Achievement motivation is a drive some people have to pursue and attain goals. An individual with this drive wishes to achieve objectives and advance up the ladder of success. Accomplishment is seen as important primarily for its own sake, not just for the rewards that accompany. A number of characteristic define achievement-oriented employees. They work harder when they perceive that they will receive personal credit for their efforts, when the risk of failure is only moderate, and when they receive specific feedback about their past performance,. People with a high drive  for achievement take responsibility for their actions and results, control their destiny, seek regular feedback, and enjoy being part of a winning achievement through individual or collective effort. As managers, they tend to export that their employees will also be oriented toward achievement. These high expectations sometime make it difficult for achievement-oriented managers to delegate effectively and for â€Å"average† employees to satisfy their manager’s demands. Affiliation Motivation : Affiliation motivation is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Comparisons of achievement-motivation employees with affiliation-motivation employees illustrate how the two patterns influence behavior. Achievement-oriented people work harder when their supervisors provide detailed evaluations of their work behavior. But people with affiliation motives work better when they are compli9mentions of their work behavior. But people with affiliation motives work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and cooperation. Achievement-motivated people select assistants who are technically capable, with little regard for personal feelings about them; those who are affiliation-motivated tend to select friends and likable people to surround them. They receive inner satisfactions from being with friends, and they want the job freedom to develop those relationships. Managers with strong needs for affiliation may have difficulty being effective managers. -Although a high concern for positive social relationships usually results in a cooperative work environment where employees genuinely enjoy working together, managerial overemphasis on the social dimension may interfere with the vital process of getting things done-. Affiliation-oriented managers may have difficulty assigning challenging tasks, directing work activities, and monitoring work effectiveness. Power Motivation Power motivation is a drive to influence people, take control, and change situations. Power-motivated people wish to create an impact on their organizations and are willing to take risks to do so. Once this power is obtained, it may be used either constructively or destructively. Power-motivated people make excellent managers if their drives are for  institutional power instead of personal power. Institutional power is the need to influence others’ behavior for the good of the whole organization. People with this need seek power through legitimate means, rise to leadership positions through successful performance, and therefore are accepted by others. However, if an employee’s drives are toward personal power, that person tends to lose the trust and respect of employees and colleagues and be an unsuccessful organizational leader. Managerial Application of the Drives Knowledge of the differences among the three motivational drives requires managers to think contingently and to understand the work attitudes of each employee. They can then deal with employees differently according to the strongest motivational drive that they identify in each employee. In this way, the supervisor communicates with each employee according to that particular person’s needs. As one employee said, â€Å"My supervisor talks to me in my language.† Although various tests can be used to identify the strength of employee drives, direct observation of employees’ behavior is one of the best methods for determining what they will respond to. HUMAN NEEDS When a machine malfunctions, people recognize that it needs something. Managers try to find the causes of the breakdown in an analytical manner based on their knowledge of the operations and needs of the machine. Types of Needs Needs may be classified in various ways. A simple classification is (1) basic physical needs, called primary needs, and (2) social and psychological needs, called secondary needs. The physical needs include food, water, sex, sleep, sir, and reasonably comfortable temperature. These needs arise from the basic requirements of life and are important for survival of the human race. They are, therefore, virtually universal, but they vary in intensity from one person to another. For example, a child needs much more sleep than an older person., . Needs also are conditioned by social practice. If it is customary to eat three meals a day, then a person tends to become hungry for three, even  though two might be adequate. If a coffee hour is introduced in the morning, then that becomes a habit of appetite satisfaction as well as a social need. Secondary needs are more vague because they represent needs of the mind and spirit rather than of the physical body. Many of these needs are developed as people mature. Examples are needs that pertain to self-esteem, sense of duty, competitiveness, self-assertion, and lo giving, belonging, and receiving affection. The secondary needs are those that complicate the motivational efforts of managers. Nearly any action that management takes will affect secondary needs; (here/ore, managerial planning should consider the effect of any proposed action on the secondary needs of employees, Here are seven key conclusions about secondary needs. They: 0 Are strongly conditioned by experience 1 Vary in type and intensity among people 2 Are subject to change across time within any individual 3 Cannot usually be isolated, but rather work in combination and influence one another. 4 Are often hidden from conscious recognition 5 Are vague feelings as opposed to specific physical needs 6 Influence behavior in powerful ways Whereas the three motivational drives identified earlier were not grouped in any particular pattern, the three major theories of human/needs -presented in the following sections attempt to classify those needs. At least implicitly, the theories of Maslow, Hertzberg, and Alerter build on the distinction between primary and secondary needs. Also, there are some similarities as well as important differences among the three, approaches. Despite their limitations, all three approaches to human needs help create an important basis for the more advanced motivational models to be discussed later. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs According to A. H. Maslow, human needs are not of equal strength, and they emerge in a definite sequence. In particular, as the primary needs become reasonably well satisfied, a person places more emphasis on the secondary needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs focuses attention on five levels.This  hierarchy is briefly presented and then interpreted in the following sections. Lower-Order Needs First-level needs involve basic survival and include physiological needs for food, air, water, and sleep. The second need level that tends to dominate is bodily safety (such as freedom from a dangerous work environment) and economic security (such as a no-layoff guarantee or a comfortable retirement plan). These two need levels together are typically called lower-order needs, and they are similar to the primary no discussed earlier. Higher-Order Needs There are three levels of higher-order needs. The third level ia the hierarchy concerns love, belonging, and social involvement at work (friendships and compatible associates). The needs at the fourth level encompass those for esteem and status, including one’s feelings of self-worth and of competence. The feeling of competence, which derives from the assurance of others, provides status. The fifth-level need is self-actualization, which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming, using one’s skills to the fullest, and stretching talents to the maximum. Interpreting the Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s need-hierarchy model essentially says that people have needs they wish to satisfy and that gratified needs are not as strongly motivating as unmet needs, Employees are more enthusiastically motivated by what they are currently seeking than by receiving more of what they already have. A fully satisfied need will not be a strong motivator. Interpreted in this way, the Maslow hierarchy of needs has had a powerful impact on contemporary managers, offering some useful ideas for helping managers think about motivating their employees. As a result of widespread familiarity with the model, today’s managers need to: ‘ Identify and accept employee needs 7 Recognize that needs may differ among employees  8 Offer satisfaction for the particular needs currently unmet 9 Realize that giving more of the same reward (especially one which satisfies lower-order needs) may have a diminishing impact on motivation. The Maslow model also has many limitations, and it has been sharply criticized. As a philosophical framework, it has been difficult to study and has not been fully verified. From a practical perspective, it is not easy to provide opportunities for self-actualization to all employees. In addition, research has not supported the presence of all five need levels as unique, nor has  the five-step progression from lowest to highest need levels been established. There is, however, some evidence that unless the two lower-order needs (physiological and security) are basically satisfied, employees will not be greatly concerned with higher-order needs. The evidence for a more limited number of need levels is consistent with each of the two models discussed next. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Model On the basis of research with engineers and accountants, Frederick Hertzberg, in the 1950s, developed a two-factor model of motivation. He asked his subjects to think of a time when they felt especially good about their jobs and a time when they felt especially bad about their jobs. He also asked them to describe the conditions that led to those feelings. Hertzberg found that employees named different types of conditions that produced good and bad feelings. That is, if a feeling of achievement led to a good feeling, the lack of achievement was rarely given as cause for bad feelings. Instead, some other factor, such as company policy, was more frequently given as a cause of bad feelings. Maintenance and Motivational Factors Hertzberg concluded that two separate sets of factors influenced motivation. Prior to that time, people had assumed that motivation and lack of motivation were merely opposites of one factor on a continuum. Hertzberg upset the traditional view by stating that certain job factors, such as job security and working conditions, dissatisfy employees primarily when the conditions are absent. However, their presence generally brings employees only to a neutral state. The factors are not strongly motivating. These potent dissatisfies are called hygiene factors, or maintenance factors, because they must not be ignored, They are necessary for building a foundation on which to create a reasonable level of motivation in employees. Other job conditions operate primarily to build this motivation, but their absence rarely is strongly dissatisfying. These conditions are known as motivational factors, motivators, or satisfiers. For many years managers had been wondering why their custodial policies and wide array of fringe benefits were not increasing employee motivation. The idea  of separate motivational and maintenance factors helped answer their question, because fringe benefits and personnel policies were primarily maintenance factors, according to Hertzberg. Job Content &Context: Motivational factors such as achievement and responsibility are related, for the most part, directly to the job itself, the employee’s performance, and the personal recognition and growth that employees experience. Motivators mostly are job-centered; they relate to job content. On the other hand, maintenance factors are mainly related to job context, because they are more related to the environment surrounding the job. This difference between job content and job context is a significant of is. It shirrs that employees are motivated primarily by what they do for themselves. When they take responsibility or gain recognition through their own behavior, they are strongly motivated. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators The difference between job content and job context is similar to the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in psychology. Intrinsic motivators are internal rewards that a person feels when performing a job, so there is a direct and often immediate connection between work and rewards. An employee in this situation is self-motivated, Extrinsic motivators are external rewards that occur apart from the nature of work, providing no direct satisfaction at the defter the work is performed Examples are retirement plans, health insurance, and vacations. Although employees value these items, fey are not effective motivators. Interpreting the Two-Factor Model Harrier’s model provides a useful distinction between maintenance factors, which are necessary but not sufficient, and motivational factors, which have the potential for improving employee effort. The two-factor model ‘ broadened managers’ perspectives by showing the potentially powerful role of intrinsic rewards that evolve from the work itself. (This conclusion ties in with a number of other important behavioral developments, such as job enrichment, empowerment, self-leadership, and quality of work life, which are. discussed in later chapters.) Nevertheless, managers should now be aware that they cannot neglect a wide rare. go of facers that create at least a neutral work environment. In addition, unless hygiene factors are reasonably adder; their absence will serve as significant distractions to workers. The Hertzberg model, like Maslow’s, has been widely criticized. It is not universe applicable, because it was based on and applies best to  managerial, professional, an; upper-level white-collar employees. The model also appears to reduce the motivation* importance of pay, status, and relations with others, since these are maintenance facto; This aspect of the model is counterintuitive to many managers and difficult for them k , accept. Since there is no absolute distinction between the effects of the two major factors the model outlines only general tendencies,† maintenance factors may be motivators to some people, and motivators may be maintenance factors to others. Finally, the model also seems to be method-bound, meaning that only Hertzberg’s approach (asking for self-reports of favorable and unfavorable job experiences) produces the two-factor model. In short, there may be an appearance of two factors when in reality there is only one factor. Alderfer’s E-R-G Mode: Building upon earlier need models (primarily Maslow’s) and seeking to overcome some their weaknesses, Clayton Alderfer proposed a modified need hierarchy—the E-R-G model—with just three levels three levels. He suggested that employees are initially interested in satisfying their existence needs, which combine physiological and security factors. Pay, physical working conditions, job security, and fringe benefits can all address these needs. Relatedness needs are at the next level, and these involve being understood and accepted by people above, below, and around the employee at work and away Growth needs are in the third category; these involve the desire for both self-esteem at self-actualization. The impending conversation between the president and the marketing manager could be structured around Alderfer’s E-R-G model. The president may first wish to identify which level or levels seem to be satisfied. For example, a large disparity between their salaries could lead the marketing manager to be frustrated with his existence needs, despite a respectable salary-and-bonus package. Or his immersion in his work through long hours and heavy travel as the stores prepared to open could have left his relatedness needs unsatisfied. Finally, assuming he has mastered his present job assignments, he may be experiencing the need to develop his no marketing capabilities and grow into new areas. In addition to condensing Maslow’s five need levels into three that are more consistent with research, the  E-R-G model differs in other ways. For example, the E-R-G model does not assume as rigorous a progression from level to level. Instead, it accepts the likelihood that all three levels might be active at any time—or even that just one of the higher levels might be active. It also suggests that a person frustrated at either of the two higher levels may return to concentrate on a lower level and then progress again. Finally, whereas the first two levels are somewhat limited in their requirements for satisfaction, the growth needs not only are unlimited but are actually further awakened each time some satisfaction is attained. Comparison of the Maslow, Hertzberg, and Alderfer Modes The similarities among the three models of human needs are quite apparent,but there are important contrasts, too. Maslow and Alderfer focus on the internal needs of the employee, whereas Herzberg also identifies and differentiates the conditions (job content or job context) that could be provided for need satisfaction. Popular interpretations of the Masiow and Herzberg models suggest that in modern societies many workers have already satisfied their lower-order needs, so they are now motivated mainly by higher-order needs and motivators. Alderfer suggests that the failure to satisfy related-ness or growth needs will cause renewed interest in existence needs. Finally, all three models indicate that before a manager tries to administer a reward, he or she would find it useful to discover which need or needs dominate a particular employee at the time. In this way, all need models provide a foundation for the understanding and application of behavior modification. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION The models of motivation that have been discussed up to this point are known as content theories of motivation because they focus on the content (nature) of items that may motivate a person. They relate to the person’s inner self and how that person’s internal state of needs determines behavior. The major difficulty with content models of motivation is that the needs people have are not subject to observation by managers or to precise measurement for monitoring purposes. It is difficult, for example, to measure an employee’s esteem needs or to assess how they change over time. Further, simply knowing about an employee’s-needs does not directly suggest to managers what they  should do with that information. As a result, there has been considerable interest in motivational models that rely more heavily on intended results, careful measurement, and systematic application of incentives. Organizational behavior modification, or OB Mod, is the application in organizations of the principles of behavior modification, which evolved from the work of B. F. Skinner. OB Mod and the next several models are process theories of motivation, since they provide perspectives on the dynamics by which employees can be motivated.